Kinase KEY1 controls pyrenoid condensate size throughout the cell cycle by disrupting phase separation interactions

Biomolecular condensates spatially organize cellular functions, but the regulation of their size, number, dissolution and re-condensation is poorly understood. The pyrenoid, an algal biomolecular condensate that mediates one-third of global CO₂ fixation, typically exists as one large condensate per chloroplast, but during cell division it transiently dissolves and reconfigures into multiple smaller condensates. Here, we identify a kinase, KEY1, in the model alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that regulates pyrenoid condensate size and number dynamics throughout the cell cycle and is necessary for normal pyrenoid function and growth. Unlike the wild type, key1 mutant cells have multiple smaller condensates throughout the cell cycle that fail to dissolve during cell division. We show that KEY1 localizes to the condensates and promotes their dissolution by disrupting interactions between their core constituents, the CO₂-fixing enzyme Rubisco and its linker protein EPYC1, through EPYC1 phosphorylation. We develop a biophysical model that recapitulates KEY1-mediated condensate size and number regulation and suggests a mechanism for controlling condensate position. These data provide a foundation for the mechanistic understanding of the regulation of size, number, position and dissolution in pyrenoids and other biomolecular condensates.