@article{7794737b7a634229ad664e52c390ca5b,
title = "Formation of proto-globular cluster candidates in cosmological simulations of dwarf galaxies at z > 4",
abstract = "We perform cosmological hydrodynamical simulations to study the formation of proto-globular cluster candidates in progenitors of present-day dwarf galaxies (Mvir ≈ 1010 M☉ at z = 0) as part of the {\textquoteleft}Feedback in Realistic Environment{\textquoteright} (FIRE) project. Compact (r1/2 < 30 pc), relatively massive (0.5 × 105 ≲ M*/M☉ ≲ 5 × 105), self-bound stellar clusters form at 11 ≳ z ≳ 5 in progenitors with Mvir ≈ 109 M☉. Cluster formation is triggered when at least 107 M☉ of dense, turbulent gas reaches Σgas ≈ 104 M☉ pc−2 as a result of the compressive effects of supernova feedback or from cloud–cloud collisions. The clusters can survive for 2 − 3 Gyr; absent numerical effects, they could possibly survive substantially longer, perhaps to z = 0. The longest lived clusters are those that form at significant distance – several hundreds of pc – from their host galaxy. We therefore predict that globular clusters forming in progenitors of present-day dwarf galaxies will be offset from any pre-existing stars within their host dark matter haloes as opposed to deeply embedded within a well-defined galaxy. Properties of the nascent clusters are consistent with observations of some of the faintest and most compact high-redshift sources in Hubble Space Telescope lensing fields and are at the edge of what will be detectable as point sources in deep imaging of non-lensed fields with JWST. By contrast, the star clusters{\textquoteright} host galaxies will remain undetectable.",
keywords = "galaxies: evolution, galaxies: formation, galaxies: high-redshift, galaxies: star clusters: general, methods: numerical",
author = "Omid Sameie and Michael Boylan-Kolchin and Hopkins, {Philip F.} and Andrew Wetzel and Xiangcheng Ma and Bullock, {James S.} and Kareem El-Badry and Eliot Quataert and Jenna Samuel and Schauer, {Anna T.P.} and Weisz, {Daniel R.}",
note = "Funding Information: This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE; Towns et al. ), via allocation AST140080, and the Frontera computing project at the Texas Advanced Computing Center (via allocations AST21010 and AST20016), which are supported by National Science Foundation awards ACI-1548562 and OAC-1818253, respectively. The analysis in this paper is carried out by python packages numpy (Harris et al. ), matplotlib (Hunter ), scipy (Virtanen et al. ), and h5py (Collette ). Funding Information: We thank the anonymous referee for a thorough and helpful report. MBK acknowledges support from NSF CAREER award AST-1752913, NSF grants AST-1910346 and AST-2108962, NASA grant NNX17AG29G, and HST-AR-15006, HST-AR-15809, HST-GO-15658, HST-GO-15901, HST-GO-15902, HST-AR-16159, and HST-GO-16226 from the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for PFH was provided by NSF Research Grants 1911233, 20009234, 2108318, NSF CAREER grant 1455342, and NASA grants 80NSSC18K0562 and HST-AR-15800. AW received support from: NSF grants CAREER 2045928 and 2107772; NASA ATP grant 80NSSC20K0513; HST grants AR-15809 and GO-15902 from STScI; a Scialog Award from the Heising-Simons Foundation; and a Hellman Fellowship. JSB was supported by NSF grant AST-1910346. EQ was supported in part by a Simons Investigator grant from the Simons Foundation and NSF AST grant 2107872. JS was supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-2102729. DRW acknowledges support from HST-GO-15476, HST-GO-15901, HST-GO-15902, HST-AR-16159, and HST-GO-16226 from STScI. Funding Information: We thank the anonymous referee for a thorough and helpful report. MBK acknowledges support from NSF CAREER award AST-1752913, NSF grants AST-1910346 and AST-2108962, NASA grant NNX17AG29G, and HST-AR-15006, HST-AR-15809, HST-GO-15658, HST-GO-15901, HST-GO-15902, HST-AR-16159, and HST-GO-16226 from the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555. Support for PFH was provided by NSF Research Grants 1911233, 20009234, 2108318, NSF CAREER grant 1455342, and NASA grants 80NSSC18K0562 and HST-AR-15800. AW received support from: NSF grants CAREER 2045928 and 2107772; NASA ATP grant 80NSSC20K0513; HST grants AR-15809 and GO-15902 from STScI; a Scialog Award from the Heising-Simons Foundation; and a Hellman Fellowship. JSB was supported by NSF grant AST-1910346. EQ was supported in part by a Simons Investigator grant from the Simons Foundation and NSF AST grant 2107872. JS was supported by an NSF Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral Fellowship under award AST-2102729. DRW acknowledges support from HST-GO-15476, HST-GO-15901, HST-GO-15902, HST-AR-16159, and HST-GO-16226 from STScI. This work used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment (XSEDE; Towns et al. 2014), via allocation AST140080, and the Frontera computing project at the Texas Advanced Computing Center (via allocations AST21010 and AST20016), which are supported by National Science Foundation awards ACI-1548562 and OAC-1818253, respectively. The analysis in this paper is carried out by python packages NUMPY (Harris et al. 2020), MATPLOTLIB (Hunter 2007), SCIPY (Virtanen et al. 2020), and H5PY (Collette 2013). Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2023 The Author(s) Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal Astronomical Society.",
year = "2023",
month = jun,
day = "1",
doi = "10.1093/mnras/stad1071",
language = "English (US)",
volume = "522",
pages = "1800--1813",
journal = "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society",
issn = "0035-8711",
publisher = "Oxford University Press",
number = "2",
}