Electro-chemo-mechanics of anode-free solid-state batteries

Anode-free solid-state batteries contain no active material at the negative electrode in the as-manufactured state, yielding high energy densities for use in long-range electric vehicles. The mechanisms governing charge–discharge cycling of anode-free batteries are largely controlled by electro-chemo-mechanical phenomena at solid–solid interfaces, and there are important mechanistic differences when compared with conventional lithium-excess batteries. This Perspective provides an overview of the factors governing lithium nucleation, growth, stripping and cycling in anode-free solid-state batteries, including mechanical deformation of lithium, the chemical and mechanical properties of the current collector, microstructural effects, and stripping dynamics. Pathways for engineering interfaces to maximize performance and extend battery lifetime are discussed. We end with critical research questions to pursue, including understanding behaviour at low stack pressure, tailoring interphase growth, and engineering current collectors and interlayers.