A universal wind–wave–bubble formulation for air–sea gas exchange and its impact on oxygen fluxes

Bubble-mediated gas exchange associated with wave breaking is a critical pathway for ocean–atmosphere exchange of low solubility gases such as oxygen. Yet, ocean and climate models, as well as observation-based products, usually rely on wind-only air–sea flux formulations derived from carbon constraints that ignore the asymmetric nature of the bubble flux, contributing to discrepancies between estimates of oxygen inventories and their response to climate change. Without bubbles, gas exchange is controlled by a symmetric wind-driven exchange, with the ocean–atmosphere gas partial pressure difference controlling whether outgassing or uptake occurs. Bubbles entrained by wave breaking can enhance this symmetric turbulent exchange, and contribute an additional asymmetric flux, always leading to an uptake, as they get squeezed by hydrostatic pressure (large bubbles) or collapse and fully dissolve (small bubbles). We present an observation-constrained theoretical framework of the air–sea flux accounting for air entrainment due to wave breaking and symmetric and asymmetric bubble exchange. The combined evidence from theory, laboratory, and field measurements of carbon dioxide fluxes, oxygen concentration, and noble gas supersaturation yields a universal formulation of gas exchange which we implement into a global ocean biogeochemical model. We discuss the resulting oxygen fluxes and demonstrate that our wind–wave–bubble formulation better reproduces observed in situ oxygen concentrations in water mass formation regions, where air–sea exchange is high, than a commonly used wind-only formulation. We show that the asymmetric bubble flux is essential for evaluating air–sea oxygen fluxes and estimating the magnitude of the ocean oxygen loss associated with global warming.